Isaac Newton: Biography, Discoveries, Theory of Gravitation

Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most pivotal figures in the history of science. Isaac Newton’s biography emphasizes how a curious mind can greatly revolutionize our understanding of the natural world. His groundbreaking achievements in physics, mathematics, and astronomy add richness to his inspiring success story and establish his life as a symbol of exceptional human accomplishment.

Summary

Sir Isaac Newton, born on December 25, 1642, and deceased on March 20, 1727, was an English polymath whose works during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment shaped future scientific thought. His landmark Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid down the laws of motion and universal gravitation, significantly advancing classical mechanics and supporting heliocentric theories.

Newton was also a co-developer of calculus, ahead of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. His 1704 publication, Opticks, dissected light and color, demonstrating how a prism divides white light into a color spectrum. Additionally, he invented the first practical reflecting telescope, established an empirical law of cooling, and theorized about the speed of sound and Newtonian fluids.

A fellow of Trinity College and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, Newton was known for his unorthodox Christian views and rejected the Trinity doctrine, avoiding the usual clergy ordination. His political roles included two terms as a Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge and being knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. Newton also spent his later years as the Warden and then Master of the Royal Mint and served as president of the Royal Society from 1703 until his death.

Early Life

Education at The King’s School

Newton attended The King’s School in Grantham from around twelve to seventeen. The school provided a solid grounding in Latin, Ancient Greek, and likely in mathematics. In October 1659, he temporarily left school to return to his family’s home in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth when his mother tried unsuccessfully to steer him towards farming. Newton loathed farming, and thankfully, Henry Stokes, the school’s master, convinced his mother to allow him to return to school. His academic performance improved significantly, driven partly by his desire to outdo a school bully. During this period, he also created various sundials and windmill models.

Academic Journey at Cambridge

In June 1661, Newton began his studies at Trinity College, University of Cambridge. His uncle, Reverend William Ayscough, a Cambridge alumnus, recommended him for admission. Starting as a subsizar—performing valet duties to help pay for his studies—Newton earned a scholarship in 1664 that allowed him to focus more fully on his education. Aristotle heavily influenced Cambridge’s curriculum, but Newton also engaged with the works of modern philosophers and scientists like Descartes, Galileo Galilei, and Thomas Street. During this time, he formulated the generalized binomial theorem and began working on what would eventually be recognized as calculus. The university closed in August 1665 due to the Great Plague, prompting Newton to continue his studies independently at home. This period was crucial as he developed foundational calculus, optics, and gravitation theories.

Return to Cambridge and Further Achievements

In April 1667, Newton returned to Cambridge and was elected a fellow of Trinity College in October. Typically, this position required ordination as an Anglican priest. However, during the Restoration years, a simple affirmation of adherence to the Church of England was accepted. Initially, Newton intended to focus on theology, but his unique religious views eventually clashed with Anglican orthodoxy. Fortunately, Isaac Barrow, a Lucasian professor at the time, recognized Newton’s potential, and by 1669, Newton succeeded him, circumventing the usual ordination requirement with the approval of King Charles II. This allowed Newton to avoid any religious conflicts and focus on his scientific pursuits. Due to his distinguished work, Newton was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672.

Mid-Life Contributions

Newton’s Calculus

Isaac Newton’s work in mathematics significantly advanced the field, particularly in calculus, a subject he referred to as fluxions. By October 1666, his foundational work in calculus was well-documented and later published among his mathematical papers. His treatise, De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, sent to John Collins by Isaac Barrow in June 1669, was immediately recognized by Barrow as the work of an exceptional genius. This document laid the groundwork for Newton’s claim to calculus, which later led to a dispute with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz over who developed calculus first. Although the two worked independently and used different mathematical notations, it is acknowledged that Newton developed his calculus concepts before Leibniz.

Newton’s calculus was integral to his major works, including the Principia, where he demonstrated calculus concepts under “the method of first and last ratios” and utilized methods involving infinitesimally small quantities. The Principia is often noted for being densely filled with theories and applications of infinitesimal calculus.

We build too many walls and not enough bridges. – Isaac Newton Click To Tweet

Despite his groundbreaking work, Newton initially hesitated to publish his calculus findings, fearing controversy and criticism. His relationship with Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, which began around 1691, aimed to produce a new version of Newton’s Principia. Their collaboration on the development of calculus came to an abrupt end in 1693, and as a result, the revised edition was never completed. The controversy over who was the original inventor of calculus escalated in 1711 when the Royal Society officially recognized Newton as the original inventor. The society further accused Leibniz of plagiarism in a report that Newton himself had concluded.

Aside from his extensive work in calculus, Newton made significant contributions to mathematics. He discovered Newton’s identities, classified cubic plane curves, and contributed to the theory of finite differences. Newton was also credited with developing the generalized binomial theorem that can be applied to any exponent. He was the first to use fractional indices and coordinate geometry to solve Diophantine equations. Newton’s work with power series and his methods for approximating the harmonic series with logarithms paved the way for further developments in mathematical analysis. Simon Stevin’s work on decimals sparked his interest in infinite series.

The Optical Discoveries

Sir Isaac Newton’s exploration into optics significantly advanced our understanding of light and color. His experiments in 1666 led him to conclude that color is an intrinsic property of light, discovered by observing how a prism refracts different colors at different angles. This insight was revolutionary, challenging the prevailing notion that objects themselves produced colors.

Between 1670 and 1672, Sir Isaac Newton delivered lectures on optics and performed experiments that showed how a prism could separate white light into a spectrum of colors, which could then be recombined into white light using a second prism and a lens. These experiments helped him develop his theory of color, which posits that colors arise from light’s interaction with objects rather than being produced by the objects themselves.

Newton also tackled the issue of chromatic aberration, where light disperses into colors, as seen in refracting telescopes. He designed the first functional reflecting telescope in late 1668 to solve this. Known today as the Newtonian telescope, this invention used mirrors instead of lenses to bypass the dispersion problem, providing clearer and larger images. His successful demonstration of this telescope to the Royal Society in 1671 spurred him to publish his findings in Opticks.

To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction. – Isaac Newton Click To Tweet

Newton’s ideas on light were not without controversy. He proposed that light was composed of particles or corpuscles and suggested that these particles were refracted by accelerating into denser media. Despite criticism from contemporaries like Robert Hooke, Newton’s particle theory of light remained influential until the wave theory of light gained prominence through the work of scientists like Young and Fresnel.

In his Opticks, published in 1704, Newton further explored his corpuscular theory, suggesting that light and ordinary matter were convertible and hinting at what would later be recognized as the photoelectric effect. He also innovated using prisms as beam expanders, a concept that would be vital in developing tunable lasers centuries later.

Newton’s interest in alchemy and the occult throughout his career influenced his scientific inquiries. He posited the existence of an ether to transmit forces between particles. He replaced it with occult forces of attraction and repulsion, paving the way for his later theory of gravity. Newton’s blend of scientific exploration and mystical pursuits underscored his role as a pioneering physicist and one of the last great alchemists.

Gravity

Sir Isaac Newton began formulating his theories on gravitation as early as 1665. His interest in celestial mechanics intensified in 1679 after engaging with Robert Hooke, the then Secretary of the Royal Society. This period marked a reinvigorated correspondence with Hooke and others, which inspired further exploration into gravitational effects on planetary orbits. The sighting of a comet in the winter of 1680-1681, discussed with astronomer John Flamsteed, further fueled his investigations.

Newton’s groundbreaking work culminated in his writing De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract first entered into the Royal Society’s Register Book in December 1684. This document laid the groundwork for his most famous work, Principia, officially titled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Published on July 5, 1687, with financial support from Edmond Halley, the Principia detailed the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. These principles advanced the Scientific Revolution and supported many technological advances during the Industrial Revolution, impacting various modern technologies that rely on classical mechanics.

In the Principia, Newton used the term gravitas to describe the force known today as gravity. He also introduced a calculus-like method for geometrical analysis, estimated the speed of sound in air, deduced the Earth’s shape as an oblate spheroid, and explained the precession of the equinoxes, among other significant scientific achievements. The complexity of applying his gravitational theories, particularly to lunar motions, notably impacted his health, leading to intense headaches and sleeplessness.

Tact is the art of making a point without making an enemy. – Isaac Newton Click To Tweet

Newton also postulated that the Solar System did not revolve precisely around the center of the Sun but around the common center of gravity of all the planets, which he posited as either stationary or moving uniformly straight. This heliocentric view, refined by Newton in the mid-1680s, was revolutionary.

Critics initially attacked Newton’s theories, accusing him of reintroducing occult practices into science by suggesting forces acting over a distance. However, Newton addressed these criticisms in the second edition of the Principia (1713), famously stating “Hypotheses non fingo” (“I frame no hypotheses”), arguing that his theories were based solely on observable phenomena without speculating on their causality.

The publication of the Principia established Newton as a leading figure in international science, drawing a circle of admirers and furthering his influence in mathematics and physics. By 1710, he had categorized 72 of the 78 known “species” of cubic curves and outlined their properties, which mathematicians like James Stirling later expanded upon. Newton’s profound contributions to science continued to resonate, shaping the frameworks of classical physics and beyond.

Later Life of Sir Isaac Newton

Appointment to the Royal Mint

In the later years of his life, Sir Isaac Newton, who by then had become an influential figure beyond academia, delved into various activities ranging from theological scholarship to managing the Royal Mint. His religious writings in the 1690s, which explored the literal and symbolic interpretations of the Bible, included a critique of the biblical text of 1 John 5:7, questioning its authenticity. However, this particular manuscript was not published until 1785.

Newton’s public service also included two brief terms as a Member of Parliament for Cambridge University in 1689 and 1701. Despite his prestigious position, he famously spoke up just once to complain about a cold draft in the chamber, requesting the window to be closed. Newton was also noted for reprimanding students who were involved in scaring locals with tales of a haunted house.

In 1696, Newton moved to London after being appointed warden of the Royal Mint during King William III’s reign, a role he obtained through Charles Montagu, the then Chancellor of the Exchequer. This position initially considered a sinecure, was taken seriously by Newton, who involved himself deeply in the Great Recoinage. He became Master of the Mint following the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position he held diligently until his death. He retired from his academic duties at Cambridge in 1701 to focus on reforming the currency and cracking down on the rampant counterfeiting of the time.

As the Royal Mint’s warden, and later as its master, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins during the recoinage were counterfeit. Newton actively participated in the pursuit of counterfeiters, often disguising himself to gather evidence in bars and taverns. He was appointed a justice of the peace in several home counties, which empowered him to conduct over 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects from June 1698 to December 1699, leading to the successful prosecution of 28 counterfeiters.

Newton was elected president of the Royal Society in 1703 and became a French Académie des Sciences associate. During his tenure at the Royal Society, he clashed with John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed’s Historia Coelestis Britannica, which he had used for his studies. This act created a rift between Newton and Flamsteed, marking one of the few contentious episodes in an otherwise celebrated career.

Newton’s Knighthood

In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Sir Isaac Newton during her royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. In the context of the upcoming parliamentary election in May 1705, this honor was likely influenced more by political factors than by Newton’s scientific achievements or his role as Master of the Mint. Following Sir Francis Bacon, he was the second scientist to receive this honor.

Newton’s tenure at the Mint led to significant changes in British monetary policy. On September 21, 1717, he wrote a report to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty’s Treasury that prompted a royal proclamation on December 22, 1717. This proclamation altered the bimetallic relationship between gold and silver coins, setting the value of gold guineas at no more than 21 silver shillings. This adjustment inadvertently led to a silver shortage, as silver coins were heavily used for imports while exports were paid for in gold, pushing Britain towards its first gold standard. The intention behind Newton’s adjustments to the currency system has been debated, with some suggesting that his actions at the Mint were an extension of his alchemical pursuits.

Newton's successful tenure at the Mint made him very wealthy. However, he experienced a significant financial loss during the South Sea Bubble, reported by his niece to be around £20,000 — a substantial amount equivalent to about £3,42 million in 2024. Despite this setback, Newton remained at the Mint until his death in 1727, demonstrating his dedication to public service and financial administration beyond his scientific contributions.

Newton resided at Cranbury Park, near Winchester, in his final years with his niece and her husband. He also maintained a residence on Jermyn Street in London, where his half-niece, Catherine Barton, managed his social engagements. Newton referred to Catherine affectionately as his “very loving Uncle” in his correspondence, especially during her recovery from smallpox. Newton’s close relationships with his family highlighted a personal side to the renowned scientist, contrasting with his public persona as a revolutionary figure in science and finance.

Death

Sir Isaac Newton died in his sleep in London on March 20, 1727 (Old Style: March 20, 1726; New Style: March 31, 1727). He received a ceremonial funeral attended by nobles, scientists, and philosophers, which marked him as the first scientist to be laid to rest in Westminster Abbey, a place usually reserved for royalty.

There is speculation that the philosopher Voltaire may have attended Newton’s funeral, a testament to the wide-reaching influence and respect Newton commanded across intellectual circles. Newton, who remained unmarried throughout his life, had arranged his affairs before his death, distributing much of his estate among his relatives and dying intestate without a will. His extensive papers were left to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton.

After his death, a plaster death mask was made, preserving Newton’s visage for posterity. This mask served as a model for a sculpture by Flemish artist John Michael Rysbrack. The Royal Society now preserves this mask, which the society’s commission scanned in 3D in 2012.

Interestingly, an analysis of Newton’s hair after his death revealed significant levels of mercury. This could have resulted from his alchemical experiments and provided some context for his erratic behavior in his later years.

Personality

Sir Isaac Newton is known for his immense contributions to science, but his personal life was marked by a lack of romantic relationships. According to the French philosopher Voltaire, who attended Newton’s funeral, the scientist never experienced strong passions, did not indulge in common vices, and had little interaction with women. Medical professionals who attended to Newton in his final days corroborate this view. It is widely believed that Newton may have died a virgin, as noted by mathematician Charles Hutton, economist John Maynard Keynes, and physicist Carl Sagan. 

Newton formed a close friendship with Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, which ended abruptly in 1693, the same year Newton had a nervous breakdown. He sent erratic and accusatory letters to his friends, including Samuel Pepys and John Locke. In one particularly distressing letter to Locke, Newton accused him of trying to involve him with women and other matters, hinting at the depth of his crisis. Despite his towering intellectual achievements, Newton was known for his humility. In a famous correspondence with Robert Hooke in 1676, Newton wrote:

“If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” 

Sir Isaac Newton

This statement is often cited as a display of modesty, but some interpret it as a veiled dig at Hooke, with whom Newton had a dispute over optical discoveries. However, the phrase predates Newton and was included in George Herbert’s Jacula Prudentum, published in 1651. It is generally seen as a recognition that his work was built upon the foundation laid by his predecessors. Newton once reflected on his sense of wonder and discovery, comparing himself to a boy playing on the seashore.

He was fascinated by finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell while the vast ocean of truth lay undiscovered before him. This metaphor captures Newton’s perpetual quest for knowledge and his humble view of his place within the broader scope of scientific exploration.

Religious Views

Sir Isaac Newton developed religious beliefs that sharply deviated from mainstream Christianity by his thirties. Considered heretical by some, his views especially contested the traditional doctrines of the Trinity. Newton was sympathetic to Arius in the historical conflict between Athanasius and Arius, seeing Christ as divine but subordinate to God the Father, which positioned him as an anti-trinitarian.

Newton’s profound religious studies remained largely private during his lifetime, only becoming publicly available in 1972. These writings revealed his detailed understanding of early Church texts and his critical perspectives on the Trinity. Despite the potential controversies, Newton managed to avoid open conflict over his unorthodox beliefs by keeping them private. He was particularly critical of the worship of Christ as God, which he viewed as idolatry.

In his scientific work, particularly in Principia, Newton integrated his belief in a divinely ordered universe, stating that while gravity could explain planetary motion, divine power was necessary to maintain the universe’s order. He viewed the universe as rationally designed and understandable through science but occasionally requiring divine intervention to manage instabilities, a concept criticized by his contemporary Leibniz.

Newton also produced significant works on biblical text criticism and prophecies, grounding his theological inquiry in rigorous scholarly methods. His blending of scientific inquiry with theological thought helped shape the rationalist approach of the Enlightenment, promoting a worldview that sought to harmonize religious belief with empirical scientific evidence.

Scientist and Alchemist

Isaac Newton is often celebrated for his groundbreaking contributions to physics and mathematics. However, John Maynard Keynes famously described him as “the last of the magicians,” highlighting Newton’s deep engagement with alchemy, a practice that combined elements of mysticism with the roots of modern chemistry.

Newton’s alchemical studies, which he largely kept private, constituted nearly one million of the estimated ten million words he wrote. These writings, often veiled in secrecy due to their sometimes heretical content, reflected his lifelong quest to understand the natural world’s hidden forces.

In 1936, Newton’s alchemical papers were auctioned at Sotheby’s, fetching about £9,000. John Maynard Keynes acquired a significant portion of these documents and later donated them to Cambridge University in 1946. These writings are now part of a project by Indiana University called “The Chymistry of Isaac Newton,” making them accessible online.

Newton’s interest in alchemy also influenced his other studies. For example, during the Great Plague of London, he explored plague remedies in his notes on Jan Baptist van Helmont’s work, describing an unusual cure involving a toad that absorbed the disease.

Through these alchemical pursuits, Newton’s legacy extends beyond his visible scientific achievements, showcasing a blend of rational inquiry and mystical exploration that characterized much of early modern science.

Legacy

Devoted Fame

Sir Isaac Newton, one of history’s preeminent scientists, is commemorated for revolutionizing our understanding of physics through his laws of motion and universal gravitation. His epitaph at Westminster Abbey eloquently captures his achievements:

“Here lies Isaac Newton, Knight, who with nearly divine strength of mind, first demonstrated the motion and shape of planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, and properties of light and color, which no one before had even imagined. Faithful in his interpretations of nature, antiquity, and the Holy Scriptures, he asserted the majesty of God and reflected the simplicity of the Gospel in his conduct.”

Although Alexander Pope proposed a grander epitaph, it was not used. Instead, he famously wrote:

“Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night; God said, ‘Let Newton be!’ and all was light.”

Newton’s influence remains profound. In a 2005 Royal Society survey, he was voted to have made a greater impact on science than Albert Einstein. In 1999, physicists also ranked him as the “greatest physicist ever.” His scientific contributions are further immortalized by naming the SI unit of force Newton.

Newton’s birthplace, Woolsthorpe Manor, is preserved as a Grade I listed building. It is significant for being the site where he developed his theories on gravity and light.

In an intriguing footnote to his legacy, one of Newton’s teeth, set into a ring, was sold in 1816 for £730, earning a Guinness World Record as the most valuable tooth ever sold, valued at approximately £25,000 in 2001. The current location of this tooth remains unknown, adding a layer of mystique to Newton’s enduring legacy.

Newton shared these thoughts with Stukeley under the apple trees at his residence in Kensington, illustrating his early curiosity about the forces of nature. John Conduitt, Newton’s assistant at the Royal Mint and his niece’s husband, also wrote about a similar reflection by Newton in 1666 while walking in a garden, which further led Newton to think about the gravitational pull extending as far as the moon.

This idea took Newton two decades to develop fully, culminating in his theory of universal gravitation, which posited that gravity was a force that acted in proportion to mass and decreased with the square of the distance between objects.

Multiple parties claim ownership of the original apple tree that inspired Newton’s revelations. The King’s School, Grantham, asserts that it acquired the tree, while staff at Woolsthorpe Manor, now managed by the National Trust, claim it still stands in its original location. Furthermore, a descendant of the supposed original tree grows outside Trinity College, Cambridge, near Newton’s former quarters.

Whether mythologized or not, this apple tree story underscores Newton’s groundbreaking approach to understanding the universe. It blended observable natural phenomena with profound theoretical insights that have influenced science ever since.

Honor

Sir Isaac Newton is honored with numerous memorials across the UK. His elaborate monument, created in 1731 by sculptor Michael Rysbrack and architect William Kent, is located in Westminster Abbey. It depicts Newton reclining on a sarcophagus, surrounded by symbols of his work, including a celestial globe and mathematical instruments.

Newton also appeared on the Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England from 1978 to 1988, depicted with a book and scientific instruments. This marks him as the last historical figure to be featured on the £1 note.

Statues of Newton can be found at significant locations, including the Oxford University Museum of Natural History and the British Library in London, where a large bronze statue by Eduardo Paolozzi, inspired by William Blake’s etching, stands prominently. Another statue stands in Grantham, where Newton attended school, highlighting his legacy in his hometown.

Additionally, Newton’s birthplace, the farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth, is preserved as a Grade I listed building, recognized for its historical significance as the site of Newton’s early discoveries in physics and optics. These various tributes underscore Newton’s enduring impact on science and culture.

Works

These works collectively showcase Newton’s monumental contributions to science, mathematics, and theology, illustrating the breadth and depth of his intellect and interests.

Published in his lifetime:

1. De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (Written in 1669, published in 1711)
2. Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, circa 1671–75)
3. De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)
4. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
5. Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa (1701)
6. Opticks (1704)
7. Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725)
8. Arithmetica Universalis (1707)

Published posthumously:

1. De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728)
2. Optical Lectures (1728)
3. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)
4. Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)
5. Method of Fluxions (Written in 1671, published in 1736)
6. An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)

Isaac Newton’s Timeline

Here’s a timeline of Sir Isaac Newton’s life, highlighting significant events and accomplishments:

• 1642: Born on December 25 in Woolsthorpe, England.
• 1661: Enrolls at Trinity College, Cambridge.
• 1665: Graduates without a degree due to the Great Plague’s closure of the university; during his time at home, he begins formulating theories on calculus, optics, and the law of gravitation.
• 1667: Returns to Cambridge, elected a fellow of Trinity College.
• 1669: Appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge.
• 1672: Joins the Royal Society and presents his new theory of light and color.
• 1687: Publishes Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”), outlining the laws of motion and universal gravitation.
• 1696: Appointed Warden of the Royal Mint.
• 1699: Becomes Master of the Royal Mint.
• 1703: Elected President of the Royal Society.
• 1705: Knighted by Queen Anne.
• 1727: Dies on March 20 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Wrapping Up

Isaac Newton’s biography concludes with his death on March 20, 1727, leaving behind a legacy that continues to shape modern science. His life story, characterized by relentless curiosity and dedication to uncovering the universe’s secrets, remains a source of inspiration. Newton’s life demonstrates how one individual’s pursuit of knowledge can have a profound and lasting impact on the world.

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